Structural injustice and the Requirements of Beauty

In this paper I consider whether structural injustice can capture the harms of beauty ideal and recognize their significance. This is done in three sections. Section 2, set out rising costs which attach to engagement an increasingly visual virtual culture. 2.1, outline how are typically understood. Sections 2.2 2.3, argue that there two communal or shared not easy on individual models: first more required meet minimal appearance standards; second body image anxiety. 2.4, order give accurate account, highlight benefits. 2.5, show demands fall across genders. 3, apply Iris Marion Young’s account beauty. 3.1, core features injustice. following sections, 3.2–3.4, have 4, benefits approach one challenge it. There numerous practices. These range from physical psychological those who engage collective arise a body-conscious paper, focus demands, demographics, The extent these hard models, yet they significant extreme. It seeking motivates use account. both psychological. Beauty practices be physically harmful spectrum. At routine end such as tanning skin-lightening harmful, surgical procedures always carry some risks harm.1 1 Sunbathing dramatically increases risk suffering cancer. Skin lightening so dangerous WHO has declared it public health (WHO 2011). Non-surgical, sometimes called non-invasive procedures, particularly risky largely unregulated.2 2 Physical complications fillers listed “Keogh Report” include infection, lumpiness, ulcers, blood vessel blockages, tissue death, allergic reactions, prolonged swelling bruising and, cases, blindness (Keogh 2013, 24). Another study, by BAAPS 2012, reported 69 percent its members had seen patients with temporary fillers, 49 semi- permanent fillers. (BAAPS 2008) surgery should over-emphasized much cosmetic medical parlance.3 3 All caries come anaesthesia, well scaring, infection further complications. However, all harm than others. For instance, buttock lifts abdominoplasties (tummy tucks), while frequently performed, startlingly high complication rates.4 4 example, many quarter abdominoplasty may require (Stewart et al. 2006). Whether contested; studies tend small, self-reporting data robust. number do suggest recipients benefit psychologically surgery, for instance terms improvements report happy results (Sarwer 2008). Other harm: dramatic statistic being correlation between breast implants suicide (Lipworth McLaughlin 2010). On balance empirical evidence robust enough make firm judgments, especially if reports context broader rise dissatisfaction ones policy-makers focused on. They emphasized need improved consent better regulation practitioners, products premises 2013; Nuffield Council Bioethics 2017). leads where recognized engaging individuals, rather extensive communal, social cultural harms. harms, standards “Increasingly makeover culture choice Just contemporary woman attending important event will probably feel wear make-up, middle aged women mid twenty-first century live environment absolute norm. middle- upper-class decision political (or aesthetically perverse) one, resolution says certain things about bearer wrinkles carrier jowls.” (Jones 2008, 95). places, already effectively required, abnormal. estimated 30 50 South Koreans double eyelid most popular procedure (Jacobs Zheng 2018). requirements only recognized. Adding another practice daily models. Indeed, at individuals activity chose, enjoy engagement. Only reveals harm. opportunity cost, resources spent elsewhere.7 7 By any reckoning industry big business. 2001 global market cosmetic, toiletry fragrance was $175 billion, regarded recession proof 2014 alone €181 billion (Consultancy UK, 2016; Kumar 2005). One model distributive justice needs could met level resource extensive. Cumulatively, becomes time, money effort striving diverted other goals goods. addition, minimum us short fail. toxic which, words Susan Bordo “the ordinary defective body” (Bordo 1997, 55). case hairy now A future “normal” requires non-surgical intervention reach costly time money, but lead cannot afford become class citizens, vulnerable discrimination stigma. As bar normal cannot, to, conform grow. spiral seek using wish anxiety dominant increase.8 8 used literature signal unease appearance, including, dissatisfaction, anxiety, indicate spectrum, extreme, low constant. Body prevalent we find odd dissatisfied her does want change Myriad devastating consequences dissatisfaction; including self-esteem, disordered eating behaviors, impaired sexual functioning poorer day-to-day interactions (Cash Smolak among young beginning policy-makers. YMCA ranked third difficult facing people genders United Kingdom(YMCA 2016). Likewise, annual Girls’ Attitude Survey, Girlguiding highlighted concern year year. 2016 survey that, girls “tell confront intense unobtainable pressures perfect say they’re good enough” (Girlguiding 2016, 2). few statistics revealing: 38 10 think pretty enough, 91 17 21; 40 lose weight least sometimes, 80 53 84 21. speak themselves similar trends repeated elsewhere, recorded globe (Ferguson 2013) (Hall 2014). factors feeding large, contested indeterminate.9 9 media, arguing link idealized thinness media images issues clearly established (Ghaznavi Taylor 2015). While others deny influence family friends primary (Stice 2001). But, agree Diedrichs states, prevalence negative due outcomes” (Diedrichs 2011, 259). That experiencing contested. Policy-makers recognizing impact individuals. tends issue addressed doing differently thinking differently. when considered collectively significance revealed. applying model. “Girls often establish relations intimacy exchanging clothes; sisters roommates raid each other’s closets, unpermitted; daughters’ feet clomp around mothers shoes. love my sweater, letting you aspect me.” (Young 2005, 71) type bonding problematic, talk excluding alienating. But very pleasure enable connection groups. Such could, theory, delivered non-beauty ways, however, would alternative touching developed. times been empowering just afro deliberately embraced symbol black empowerment civil rights movement. symbol, “black beauty” alienating Shirley Tate recounts story Teresa, mixed race plaited hair wore head wrap hide straightness she felt authentically (Tate 2007). Recognizing complexity norms crucial understanding Without wider adequately theorized also proposed solutions inappropriate counterproductive. see fail then wholesale rejection seems reasonable response. complicated ways embedded entwined shows impractical, even counterproductive, simplistic are.12 12 Impossible because experience know counterproductive as, benefits, likely reject criticism return 4. falling irrespective gender. Recall Kingdom disorders sufferers male (Griffiths “Sexualisation Young People” report, details boys under pressure display bodies world muscles hyper-masculine (Papadopoulous “drive muscularity” men equated thinness” (Stapleton, McIntyre, Bannatyne Appearance ideals demanding women; importantly no men.13 13 Elsewhere women, men. feature globally valued tallness. contrast little divergence permitted (with curves), firmness, smoothness, youth. Yet feeling exhibiting rising, along shift, work, diet exercise chemical interventions. Cosmetic still female activity, going knife. operations men, dubbed daddy makeover,” “epic 20% liposuction 13% jump ‘man boob’ reductions” 2012). Naomi Wolf, landmark book, Myth, jokes She invites “penis implants, penis augmentation, foreskin enhancement, testicular silicone injections correct asymmetry, saline sizes, angle erection, lift scrotum pert” (Wolf 1990, 242). Her purpose crazy unimaginable like parallel way women. pass; enlargement adverts fill boxes Botox (scrotox) smooth testicles. If Brazil top curve fact fastest growing demographic might foreshadow general trend surgery.14 14 Edmonds common anxieties losing weight, gaining muscle, loss, virility (Edmonds 2010, 321). When comes more. States, “as 60 were regularly reducing removing areas below neck” (Herzig 2015, 10). Recent figures, 2011 study reporting majority U.S. Australian college pubic (Smola Murnen Further found extension (Elsner Men spend clothes, hair, grooming dissimilar traditionally products, makeup, sold (Miller 2014; Hall too considering suitability capturing returned 4.3. Having ideal, noted less gendered previously, explore exhibit features. simple single important, although accounts emerging. Sally Haslanger’s work construction, collected Resisting Reality, influential, mainstreaming philosophy hitherto resistant non-individual (Haslanger paradigmatic Like others, regard Responsibility Justice definitive.15 15 Others same Monique Deveaux (2016) Serena Pareck (2012). provide formal definition describes Sandy, mother two, spirals into homelessness 43–44). Sandy given notice landlord, plans develop old poorly maintained building children live. looks new house, unable affordable rental apartment bus route. Eventually, settles bed apartment, 45-minute car journey roads clear. ends up homeless cost means longer deposit apartment. Sandy’s descent “mundane” 45). aims particular injustice, wrong (terms uses relatively interchangeably).16 16 runs harm, together. aim distinguish harm/wrong/injustice traced identifiable causes wrongs injustices. To illustrate states distinct forms wrong” actions structures, patterns norms, individual’s choices actions. Three situation characterize define First, “situation result primarily own victim circumstances beyond control” Second, harmed wrongful individual. contrast, “all whom encounters act within law according accepted rules” 46). Third, “some unjust policy” 47). laws policies contribute, cites do, municipal zoning private investment importantly, obviously none singled major cause. fit turn. occur must harmed. true beauty, “largely Some choice, not. Harms are, pain chosen consented to. free assume, constrained, remains.17 Chapter Perfect Me, “I’m me,” considers narrative argues real, highly constrained. discussed 2.3 risen hairless normalized. Not remove abnormal unnatural, removal recast hygiene practice. Once happens conforming choice. different previous local global. illustrate, foot-binding corset wearing. transformed Tiny waists “lotus” beautiful, adornment. evident differences cultures modified body––the tiny waist feet––could natural.18 18 Most working farmed land performed domestic duties ways. clear difference provided rejecting (indeed, suffragettes maids did corsets without them). existence obvious makes impossible ubiquitous natural. normal, adornment grooming. modifications, removal, possible. limited lower down hierarchies. Making claims groups “choose” privileged problematic (Holliday Sanchez Given choices. cumulative said Even deemed preferences worry feelings (Dohnt Tiggemann 2005; Harriger nonsensical. Collectively contribute phenomenon––as matters more––but effect Accordingly, controversial claim everyone involved creation promotion attendant acting “within Yet, cumulatively result, significant. tracked actions, rarely outside laws. parents child undergo purely reasons. Parents routinely put through pin back protruding ears, birth marks straighten teeth. direct (e.g., causing pain) narrowing range. acts against norms. teeth criticized harming child. making them stigma.19 19 “fix” what fixed, narrows, leaving discrimination. argument detail elsewhere (Widdows 2017b). directly key influencers popularize looks. current fashion large lips, risky, arguably Kylie Jenner.20 20 70 increase interest lips presented press Jenner’s confession lip injectables (Akbareian subsequent support (Ward, Ward, Paskhover endnote ii practitioners unregulated. action wrongly creating demand additional procedures. Examples cellulite reduce pores. instances so-called flaws invented exploited; create designed fix them. Again rise, all, cases anyone “outside law” “accepted rules norms.” celebrity popularizes harming, stepping company sells product law. something unethical, flaw promoting look attain. nor cause, unnecessary critique capitalism, contributing illegal standard unscrupulous surgeon knowingly operates person wronging her. Or treatments s/he knows dangerous. happened Poly Implant Prosthese (PIP) scandal, made industrial fraudulently implanted fraudulent promises providers, promise happiness, wronging.21 21 MYA (Make Yourself Amazing) group part. stand taller, louder confident. encourage “join thousands part #MYAworld today!” (MYA 2019). caused companies actors surgeons best interests patients, beauticians sales persons sell sincerely, post #fitspiration promote “clean eating” believe healthy lifestyle. Similarly, triggered action, ind